Beginning of The Modern Age

BEGINNING OF THE MODERN AGE
1 .What is the significance of the growth in trade and rise of towns in the period of renaissance?
Ans. The increase in trade and commerce that followed the explorations brought prosperity to Europe. It was estimated that by 1600 the amount of gold in Europe had doubled and that of silver had increased by 10 times. Now every country in Europe tries to increase its gold and it came about that any country's prosperity depended on the amount of the gold that country held. Previously, the traders brought goods from Asia and sold them in all European markets and gold to the mother country but slowly and steadily when they startedmeddling in the political affairs of the Asian and African countries and set up colonies, the laws were passed to ensure that the inflow of gold to the mother country would not diminish. The colonies were prohibited from trading with other countries and also prohibited manufacture of finished goods so as to avoid competition to the mother country.
The explorations and discoveries and the growth of trade and commerce brought many far reaching changes. The Italian cities had long been the centres of international trade. With the increase in commercial activities and the discovery of the new world, the position shifted to the countries facing Atlantic Ocean and this had far reaching changes on the socio-economic life of the people and gave ruse to a class of people with whom more and more amount of wealth was concentrated and which encouraged growth of trade, commerce and manufacture of goods.
This socio-economic change also gave rise to a new class, i.e, the middle class and the society changed from the feudal to that of a capitalist and the middle class started having a more say in the changing economy of the country and the power of the church diminshed. The rising middle class class later became responsible for the political developments and getting rid of what remained of feudalism.

2. What practices of the Roman Catholic Church and churchmen of the 15th and 16th centuries did the reformers object to ?
Ans. The church had accumulated favorous wealth and the popes and the higher clergy led lives of luxury. The conduct of the clergy was not in keeping with the principles of the church. The clergy often bought offices and accepted and gave bribes to free themselves from certain rules of the church like marriage and fasting. Naturally this caused a huge amount of resentment among the people.

3. Explain why the capture of Constantinople by the Turks led scholars and leave for Italy and explorers to look for new trade routes.
Ans : The cities of Rome, Florence, Milan and Venice had grown into prosperous centres of trade and commerce. They had grown in an atmosphere of freedom from feudal control. This freedom encouraged thinking and a spirit of adventure and the kings also encouraged art and literature and they also encouraged Greek scholars. When Constantinople was conquered by the Turks, many scholars came to Italy via Greece and the learning of ancient Greece spread throughout Italy and many other countries and this helped in developing a new style of art and architecture which was associated with the first steps towards Renaissance.
When the Turks captured Constantinople, the land route towards Asia was cut off . The traders and the merchants now started thinking of discovering new routes to Asia especially India. This was encouraged by the Kings and Emperors as the amount of revenue that trade brought to the mother country. Explorations were financed and encouraged by the rulers and the merchants and traders started exploring new routes through land and sea and thus in the process discovered new lands and this was possible because of the spirit of renaissance had started in the countries of Europe.


4.Do you consider the development of nation states a step forward in man’s progress? Why or why not?
Ans : The rise of nation states began in the 14th century. The rulers or governments of these states have regarded no interest second to that of their own and respected no other authority. Machiavelli, in his writings had told them how to govern. A strong feeling of nationalism grew in each state. This nationalism was often directed against other nations. It led to national jealousies and rivalies and conglicts. These rivalries were usually over trade and later in getting possession or control of territory in Asia or the Americas. The nations greed for colonies, maximum profits, and national glory led to many wars between the countries of Europe. Such conflicts and wars have continued till today and now efforts are being made to end such rivalries and encourage trade and friendship among nations.

5.What is your understanding of the term “humanism”? Give examples of the influence of humanism in the Renaissance art and literature.
Ans : Scholars though changed their way of thinking i.e. preparation of life after death, they studied the lives of ancient Greeks and Romans and slowly their thinking filtered down to present or the life they were living now. Human affairs were now of interest to them. They also hungered after more knowledge. They came to feel that human life is important, that man is worthy of study and respect, that there should be efforts to improve life in this earth. Now the study of history and literature was no longer confined to religion but now to humanities which was primalrily concerned with understanding the affairs of man in his earthly life not with life after death.
This new spirit found expression in the new art and literature. The Renaissance artists took their subjects from the Bible but portrayed the human form in all its earthly beauty and vigour. The Renaissance writers were also chiefly concerned with man and not with God or life after death. The writers now started describing human and human emotions in their plays and the artists started depicting man in his every day life did not have any thing to do with religion.
6. Discuss the connection between the voyages of discovery and trade. What were the immediate consequences of the work of explorers on the people of Americas and Africa?
Ans : After the crusades, the Europeans became increasingly interested in the East, largely through the stories brought back by travelers and traders by way of Constantinople. The prosperity of the Italian cities that had grown rich from their trade with eastern countries aroused the envy of the other European nations; they longed to have a share in ;the ;trade. The trade, expecially in spices, was very profitable. But after 1453, the Turks cut off this trade through Asia Minor and if the Europeans were to continue to have spices, these products had to be brought by a different route. Finding new routes was a challenge to the adventurous sailors of Renaissance. The mariners compass had been developed. The belief that the earth is round and that one can arrive in the East by sailing west further stimulated explorations. The unknown Atlantic beckoned the great voyages began.
Wherever the explorers went, the flag of their nation and its missionaries soon followed. The first explorers were followed by the conquerors. The conquered people were forced to perform the hard labour and if they resisted, they were massacred. Many died of disease and of the horrible exploitation they were subjected to. One historian has described the activities of these explorers as marked by envy, malice treachery cruelty, lechery and plain greed.
One tragic consequence of the ;explorations l;and of the colonization that followed was the trade in human beings. The people of the newly discovered areas in Africa were enslaved and transported to the newly discovered areas in the Americas. The slave trade brought immense profits to the slave traders. The continents of Africa and Americas were thus combined together under a new system of exploitation.
7. In what way do the developments described in this chapter mark the beginning of the modern age? Discuss.
Ans.: The period from about 1500 to about 1700 was one of tremendous changes in the history of Europe. The feudal system in many countries of Europe either disintegrated or was in a state of decay. In its place, a new social system began to take shape. In this the merchants and traders played an important role. The attitude of mind which was born with Renaissance enabled the people to think for themselves and to speak and act in ways they had never done before. They expressed the new attitude through art, literature, revolt against the church and adventurous sea voyages. Ath the same time, foundations of modern science were laid. The discovery of new lands led to colonization and increased trade which led to accumulation by merchants of fabulous amounts of gold and silver. Business methods and procedures began to change so as to promote money-making interests. The nation-states with despotic rulers helped this process for a time. In the 17th century , the new groups or classes which had arisen began to struggle against autocratic rulers and they succeeded in destroying the autocratic rule in England. All these developments may be said to constitute the beginning of the modern age in European history.