History (Summary)

PREHISTORY


Period for which there are no written records – archaeological findings revealed the past 2 million years ago man like being – 30,000 – 40,000 years ago Homo Sapiens (wise man) . Intelligence – tools – climatic changes, food gatherer – food producer – fire, shelter, clothes, speech, hunting, fishing, gathering food- palaeolithic age – old stone age, Mesolithic, Neolithic age, 8000 BC – fast pace – 30,0000 years – little change – evolution – groups – culture- civilizations.

Archaeology + Prehistory.

1856 – James + William Burton – Karachi – Lahore – briks – Sir John Marshall – N G Majumdar.

Crete, Egypt, Pompeii

Stratified, mummies, pickaxe + spade,
Carbon 14 dating
Anthropology

LIFE BEGINS ON EARTH

Age of the earth 4,500 million years – restless- tectonic plates, winds, water, rain, ice – farming mountains and oceans. Old sea beds- to form mountains – Himalaya – Mt.Everest – Sea life fossils – Climate – Life.

GEOLOGIAL AGES

Eozoic period – lower pre cambrain 3000 – 1200 m

Eozoic period – Upper – Pre Cambrain 1200 – 600 m

Palaeozonic – Cambrain + other periods 600 m – 210 m

Mesozoic Periods
210 – 70 Jurassic + others














Caenozooic Periods 70 m – present

Single celled or unicellular organism
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Lower level of multicellular organisms
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differenciation of gender
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first backboned creatures in water
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Life shiftee from the seas to the marshes then to the land
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Amphibians
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An Ice age that wipedout most of the amphibians
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The age of the reptiles e.g., dinosaurs
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The first birds
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The first mammals
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Another ice age which killed the dinosaurs and reptiles
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Development of the mammals
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Through the various species of man and homosapiens finally emerged to the earh 30,000 – 40,000 years ago

THE ICE AGE

Pleistocene – great changes – earth stable 6,00,000 – 10,000 – Very cold adaptability - north polar ice cap – foothills













MAN APPEARS

Primates monkeys apes, lumurs, shrews, man 1m or 2m years ago

MAN STANDING ERECT

Stands enemies, strong muscles, grasping hand thumb organs and brain

TOOLS + FELLOW MEN

Flint tools implements intelligence

MAN’S POWER OF SPEECH

Started talking

PRIMATES 1
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HOMONIDS 2


AUSTRALOPITHECUS 3 RAMAPITHCUS 4 PITHECANTHRO- 5
PUS ERECTU US
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HOMO SAPIENS 8



CRO- GRIMALDI MAN
MAGNAN
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ZINJANTHROPUS 9











PRIMATES
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HOMONIDS

SINANTHROPUS NEANDERTHAL MAN

1) PRIAMATES :- Man, monkeys, lemurs, shrews, apes

2) HOMONIDS :- Man like beings – appear in Africa – Pleistocene period – 1 to 2 million years ago.

3) AUSTRALOPITHECUS:- First ape ma who walked erect and was very close to a hominid central Africa.

4) ZINJANTHROPUS :- Sub- species of Australopithecus made tools lived five hundred thousand years ago. They were the leads of the lower Paleolithic culture, lived naked, ate berried and fruits.

5) RAMAPETHECUS :- 8 Million years ago.

6) PITHECANTHROPUS :- He is known and the rerect ape man first hominid of this special variety found in Asia . At Java the skull cap, teeth and thigh bone was discovered, he could walk erect other name Java man 5,00,000 to 2,00,000 yeqrs ago he lived. The only fossil of this variety in Europe was found in Heidelberg in Germany.

7) SINANTHROPUS :- is also known as pecking man. 40 similar beings were being found in Pecking. Advanced cousin of Java man. Much is known about him from the caves and skeletons found. He used fire. When Japan invaded China the remains of the Pecking man were lost but the photographs still remained.

8) NEANDERTHAL MAN :- found in the valley of Neander in Germany- represents the middle Paleolithic age. He was present in the fourth glaciation period, lived in ice caves. 1 lakh 60,000 years ago, he died 40,000 years ago suddenly. He lived in Europe, Asia and Africa. Made chipped tools buried the dead, practicedreligion believed in life after death.

9) GRIMALDI MAN :- Upper Paleolithic age.

10) CRO MAGNAN MAN :- upper Paleolithic age.






PALAELOTHIC AGE

1) CRUDE TOOLS - Chipped shaped under natural conditions.
2) FOOD :- gatherer.
3) HAND AXES :- hand cut, blows, moving flakes ; Choppers :- meat heavy stone ; flake implements :- smallest sharper edges
4) SLOWLY UPPER PALAELOTHIC AGE :- Bone + ivory.
5) BOW + SPEARTHROWER,:- hitting range, accuracy hit at a distance.
6) COMMUNITY LIFE:- hunting + food gathering.
7) CO OPERATION :-women / children / old
8) SEASONAL MIGRATION
9) NO sense of property, equality.
10) ART :- Cro magnan man – few thousand years- artist- painting, engraving – picture caves, sculpture – picture caves – bones ivory – fire – magical purposes – beautiful.

NEOLITHIC AGE

POLISHED STONE TOOLS :- Important tools- celt used for clearing forest – cut timber – did carpentry used sickle bow and arrow. A new toold made during this period was sling. Bone and antilers were used for making tools.

POTTERY :- Baskets were made up of straw and twigs. They were smeared with mud. Some were baked to make a pot in fire. They were made of coil clay rope mixed with sand, shells and chopped straw. They were baked at 600”c .

SPINNING AND WEAVING
Lenin, Cotton and wools replaced leaves and skin. Spinning of thread and weaving of cloth carried on.

IMPROVEMENT IN COMMUNITY LIFE

There was division in labour. Some cultivated land while as certain were free to develop science and arts.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS.

Dead were buried alongwith their belongings. They believed in Totem that was an animal feature respected by all communities. It protected their grains and protected them from evils. Small clay figures of women were called mother goddesses have been found of Neolithic age.




BEGINNING OF FARMING.

Man was a good gatherer for thousands of years. Agriculture was started after close observation of the grains growing wild. He started eating these wild grains wherever he could find them. Somewhere down the line he observed that the seed grew into a plant and could be harvested everyear. He started growing crops and head to live in one area till the land lost its fertility.

Some settlements were fertilized by the alluvial soil and so man did not have to leave. In the Arabian and the Iranian deserts the fertile crescent in one such area and freicho in Palestine is another such area

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SETTLEMENTS

Man decided to live next to his crops and domesticate the animals that were easily available. Cattle could be domesticated for meat and milk. The fields had to be looked after so man stayed in one place for longer periods of time. To seek protection from wild animals and other communities the settlement developed into a small village or town that was fortified. An example of such a community is the lake dwellings of Switzerland.

MIXED FARMING.
Man realized he could tame the animals around and they would provide him with meat and milk. He domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, horses and asses.

THE MESOLITHIC AGE

Between the Paleolithic Age and Neolighic age lies the Mesolithic age in ;which glaciers were shrinking, thick forests were forming, agriculture has just started and small tools known as microliths were used.

OBJECTIVES.

The period in which there are no written records is Prehistory

Another name of Homo Sapiens is Wise man.

Old stone age is also known as PALEOLITHIC AGE

The phase of human development quickened only about 8000 BC

The middle stone age is also known as MESOLITHIC AGE

The new stone age is known as NEOLITHIC AGE



The homo sapiens appeared 30 TO 40,000 YEARS AGO

The cultures or groups of people that have become highly developed are often called as
CIVILIZATIONS

A person who digs old sites is known as ARCHEALOGIST

In 1856 the two brothers JAMES and WILLIAM BURTOL discovered the Indus Valley Civilization

The preserved bodies of dead kings in Egypt is known as MUMMIES

Anthropology is the study of MAN

Palaeozonic period comes between EOZOIC and MESOZOIC periods

There were 4 ice ages and 3 inter glacial periods

Man belongs to the group of mammals called PRIMATES

The earliest man like beings were known as HOMONIDS

Another name for the Java man is PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS

The NEANDERTHAL man gets its name from the Neander Valley in Germany

CROMAGNON Man belongs to the homo sapiens species

The three types of tools of Palaeolithic man were HAND AXES, CHOPPERS, AND FLAKE IMPLEMENTS

The small tools used in the Mesolothic period were known as MICROLITHS

Practicing agriculture with the rearing of animals is known as MIXED FARMING

The two tools of the Neolithic man were SICKLE and SLING

An image of an animal or a plant for a clan or a group is called as TOTEMS

The large stones that marked the burial places of the Neolithic ;man were known as
MEGALITHS



The STONE HENGE is place in England famous for its Megaliths.

The wheel was discovered in the Neolithic period



BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATIONS


4000BC – stage of civilizations – cities – urban revolution – river valleys – oil – water – transport – common needs – community work – dykes, canals drainage glood waters – settled life – improvement of other skills – trade – architecture , music, art and leisure

CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD

5000 BC – native copper

Sumer 4000BC – MINES 3000 BC Asia Africa Europe , copper + tin or zinc = bronze Plough head, hammer head, stoneless metallurgy – workers.

COMMON FEATURES.

1. River valleys.
2. Community life
3. Cities
4. Trade
5. Potential + social features
6. Trade + Commerce
7. Religious beliefs
8. Writing System
9. Science + Maths


AGRICULTURE

1. Enough food
2. Extra barter
3. Small fields in Neolithic
4. Plough- wooden – better – bronze
5. Irrigation – clear jungles
6. Channels, dykes, canals
7. Skills






CITIES

1. Food from villages
2. Trade
3. Barter-later money used
4. Occupations developed
5. Division of labour
6. Complex life – government
7. Writing


THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATIONS


First in the Indian Sub-Continent – Harqappa – Mohenjodaro – also known as Indus Valley Civilization – Many sights in India and Pakistan. 2500 BC – 1920’s Harappa (Punjab) – Mohenjodaro (Sind) – Rupra Punjab – Kalibangan (Rajasthan) – Lothal +Sarkotada – Gujarath – Baluchistan – Rajastan old communities – influence of Mesopotamia

CITIES

1. Well planned + populated
2. Straight wide road crossing into each other
3. 10 x 800 m main road
4. Houses along the road, one or more storeys – burnt bricks
5. well + bathroom
6. House drains == street drains
7. The great bath == steps – rooms
8. Citadel – granary official buildings
9. Lothal – structure – dockyard

LIFE OF THE PEOPLE

1. Farmers – wheat , barley, peas
2. cotton – fabric exported
3. fish – food
4. Domestication of animals
5. Horse not used much






6. Pottery – on wheel – jars – black or red
7. Complicated designs – Patterns
8. Carts with wheels – animals yoked – birds movable arms
9. Metals – implements – utensils earthern pots
10. Dancing girl , old man figurines
11. Seals – animals + tablets of clay – embossed cutting, glazed – inscription
12. Trade with Mesopotamia through sea
13. Government –no kings
14. Humped bull God like being
15. Dead bodies buried/cremated

END OF THIS CIVILIZATION

1. Flood – 1500 BC
2. Gradual – decay of culture
3. Arrival of the Aryans
4. Mass migration

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION


The history of India and its surrounding areas has been pushed back to 5000 years. This is due to the discovery of Harappan Civilization in this sub continent. This was a very advanced civilization which saw no parallel for many centuries to come. The following are its main characteristics.

CITIES OF HARAPPAN CULTURE.

Each city was well planned with road running parraled to each other. The main road in Mohenjodaro was 800x10m. The houses were situated next to the roads, had a well and a proper drainage system.

The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro was a huge tank which had flight of steps all round it and was surrounded with rooms. It must have been used for religious purposes.

The Citadel was a raised ground on which were situated the official buildings and the granaries. Lothal was a important port as well as a trading centre.

LIFE OF THE PEOPLE

The Harappan people were basically farmers who grew wheat, barley, peas and cotton. Animals were domesticated like goats and buffaloes but the horse was not widely used.




Pottery making had reached a very high level where it was made on the potter’s wheel. All shapes and sizes were made painted red and decorated with black designs.

Toys with movable areas have been found, countless carts with wheels and animals yoked to them have also been discovered.

Bronze was widely used. The dancing girls of Mohenjodaro is a famous example.

The seals were the most important feature of this civilization. They had an animal figure engraved on them and after cutting, they were glazed. Some seals have an inscription which hasn’t been deciphered so far.

Gods and goddesses were worshipped. The dead bodies were either buried or cremated. There were no kinds, but certain officials were there. Trace was carried on between Mesopotamian and Harappan because Mesopotanian objects have been found in Harappan and vice versa.

END OF HARAPPAN CULTURE.

Harappan culture came to an end all of a sudden. Around 1500BC it was completely wiped out. Three basic reasons have been given for this. It is believed that the Harappan Culture was destroyed by flood. The Aryans came and massacared them or the culture saw a gradual decay. Some historians believe that they migrated to Mesopotamia.

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Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, Sumer, Southernmost Babylon Akkad Assyria Mountains + plains perennial irrigation sustem floods controlled river bed high 25 m canals. Navigable transport and irrigation

HISTORY OF MESOPOTAMIA

3000 BC Sumerian Civilization – high level – irrigation – trade – industry+ commerce, Erech, Eridu, Lagash, Ur (each a capital) culture same but fighting – 2600 BC Ur most powerful – Akad- different stock adopted Sumerian ways – 2500BC Sumer + Akkad+Agade – survived for 100 years and then destroyed. – a new dynasty at Babylon- Hammurabi – Iraq ( one kingdom) – 1600 BC destroyed – Hettites – Asia minor Turkey famous for horses and iron.









MESOPOTAMIAN CITIES +SOCIAL CLASSES

Ur- completed picture 3 dimentions – sacred area, walled city on the mound + outer town patron God – Namar the Moon God – Ur – Temple of God – Ziggurat-hill of heaven-on an artificial hill more than 20 m + 3 storeys – seen for miles around – sacred area – offices+ storehouses – smaller temples – sacrifices 2,3 – residential area houses – sizes city not planned . Houses not planned uniform courtyard + romms one tenetments for artisans.

CLASSES
God – King – Priests – officers + scribes – merchants – landowners – slaves (Prisoners of war)

HAMMURABDS CODE OF LAW

1. complex life – complex rules needed
2. Hammurabi’s code of law (a system)
3. every aspect of life
4. crime one crime state
5. punishment more if upper class
6. RM , PM , SL, (Different punishments)
7. Hammurabi standing in reverence before his God laws under it.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

1. special god – each city
2. rent regulations in his name
3. temple – lavish – priests – powers
4. life after death – food – belongings
5. summer – buried – houses – protectors, worshipped

MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION

Mesopotamia or the land between the rivers is known for one of the oldest civilizations of the world. It lies between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. It’s main regions were Sumer, Babylon and Akkad. They are known for their irrigation system that was very advanced.

MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY

Sumer became the most important centre of this civilization around 3000 BC. The control of irrigation made it economic centre as well . the most important cities were Erich, Erudu, Lagash and Ur. Their culture was similar but the infighting grew. Ur became powerful and spread its influence.



In 2500 BC Akkad and Sumer were combined into a single kingdom with its capital at Agade. This was destroyed by the invaders and the next important ruler was Hammurabi. His kingdom was destroyed by 1600 BC by the

MESOPOTAMIAN CITIES

Each city had sacred area, the walled city on the mound and the outer town. The sacred area contained the administrative offices and the storehouses. The walled city and the outer town were residential areas and had well planned houses. Each house had a courtyard with rooms around it.

Each city had a patron God. Nannar, the moon God was the God of Ur. The temple of God was called the Ziggurat meaning the hill of heaven, was buiklt of bricks on an artificial hill in the sacred area. The Ziggurat at Ur was more than 20 m high. It could be seen for miles together and reminded them of divine presence of God.

Pictograms – signs, symbols, pictures

Communication – easy

Ideas (problem)

Certain pictures – ideas,names,words

Phoenetic – syllables+sounds

Aunciform

Wedge shaped

Stylus of reed – clay tablets

Bakes – letters documents deeds of sale

Royal inscriptions + Religious texts

Henry Robinson









Branch office in Iran

Behistun Inscription

100 m rock

12 years


GROWTH IN KNOWLEDGE

Sexagesimal system of counting (counting by 60s)

1-9 = one sign multiples of 10 = bigger sign

360 + min + sec

Pythagoras theorem (building +computing distances)

Length = day+night
Rising+setting=sum+moon
24 hours’day
12 parts-Zodiac

lunar calendar short by 11 days

750 BC – Babylon – fall – Assysrian
Nunuch – destroyed - Medes Chaldeans Iranians
7th – 6th Century BC



MESOPOTAMIAM RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

The Mesopotamians believed in a number of Gods but each city had its own patron God. All administration was carried in his name and a lavish temple was dedicated to him. People who died were buried along with certain belongings. In Sumer the people were buried in backyard of their homes and acted as the protectors.









OCCUPATIONS, ART AND CRAFTS OF MESOPOTAMIA

The basic occupation was agriculture. Baked sickles were used. Canals and reservoirs were used to supply water to the fields. Clothes were made of sheep skin and Lenin and there was a class of spinners and weavers and dyers. Metal crafts was an advanced industry, this we come to know from the jewellery that has beenfound at Ur. They form a guild where the secret of metal work was strictly guarded. The potters wheel was used to make pottery.

SOCIAL CLASSES IN MESOPOTAMIA

I t is the same in every civilization. God is the supreme being and the kind is regarded as the representative on the earth. Next came the priests who wee the rulers of the states before the kind came. The kings officers and courtiers came next. Followed by merchants and shop keepers. The last category was the slaves who were prisoners of war.

HAMMURABI’S CODE OF LAW

Hammurabi was the ruler of Babylon from a new dynasty. He gave a system of laws to his people. If a person commiteed a crime it was regarded as a crime against the state. Lower clases were punished more for the same crime. Class division was exceptable in the society. Hammurabi is shown on a edict in reverence before his god and the laws are written underneath it.

TRADE AND COMMERCE

The Mesopotamians imported stone, timber, gold, silver and other metals. And they exported their ;surplus good grians. The raw material that was imported was made into manufactured goods and sent to Harappa and other civilizations. The quality of these goods were checked by the kings and the governors of the city states. They had an efficient system of land, river and sea transportation. Keleks rafts were made of logs of wood and inflated with skills to carry goods on water.